HEAT GENERATION
Heat Transfer
Volumetric Thermal Source Strength
The total heat output of a reactor core is called the heat generation rate. The heat generation
rate divided by the volume of fuel will give the average volumetric thermal source strength. The
volumetric thermal source strength may be used to calculate the heat output of any section of fuel
rod, provided the volume of the section is known.
Volumetric Thermal Source Strength
Qcore
Vfuel
Fuel Changes During Reactor Operation
During the operation of a nuclear reactor, physical changes occur to the fuel that affect its ability
to transfer heat to the coolant. The exact changes that occur are dependant on the type and form
of fuel. Some reactors use fuel assemblies that consist of zircalloy tubes containing cylindrical
ceramic pellets of uranium dioxide. During manufacture, a small space or gap is left between
the fuel pellets and the zircalloy tube (clad). This gap is filled with pressurized helium. As the
reactor is operated at power, several physical changes occur in the fuel that affect the gap
between the pellets and clad. One change occurs due to high pressure in the coolant outside the
clad and the relatively high temperature of the clad during reactor operation. The high
temperature and high pressure causes the clad to be pushed in on the pellets by a process referred
to as creep. Another physical change is caused by the fission process. Each fission event creates
two fission product atoms from a fuel atom. Even though each fission product atom is roughly
half the mass of the fuel atom, the fission products take up more volume than the original fuel
atom. Fission products that are gases can collect together and form small gas bubbles within the
fuel pellet. These factors cause the fuel pellets to swell, expanding them out against the clad.
So the two processes of pellet swell and clad creep both work to reduce the gap between the fuel
and clad.
This change in the gap between the pellet and clad has significant impact on heat transfer from
the fuel and operating fuel temperatures. Initially a significant temperature difference exists
across the gap to cause heat transfer to take place by convection through the helium gas. As the
size of the gap is reduced, a smaller temperature difference can maintain the same heat flux.
When the fuel pellets and clad come in contact, heat transfer by conduction replaces convection
and the temperature difference between the fuel surface and clad decreases even more. Due to
the processes of pellet swell and clad creep, the fuel temperatures of some reactors decrease
slightly over time while the heat flux from the fuel and therefore the power of the reactor remain
constant.
Not all changes that occur to the fuel during reactor operation work to enhance heat transfer.
If the chemistry of the coolant is not carefully controlled within appropriate limits, chemical
reactions can take place on the surface of the clad, resulting in the formation of a layer of
corrosion products or crud between the metal of the clad and the coolant. Typically, this layer
will have a lower thermal conductivity than that of the clad material, so it will act as an
insulating blanket, reducing heat transfer.
HT-02
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